Jewelry is meant to adorn the body which, thankfully, provides many convenient locations to suspend your treasures. Throughout history, jewelry has evolved from objets trouvés to high-tech and complex works of art. As fashion changes, how we wear our jewelry adapts to the current chic. With long, tight lace-edged sleeves like those in the Medieval Period, bracelets were scarce. During the Roaring Twenties with the sleeveless shift style dresses, bracelets were worn in a more-the-merrier arrangement.
Fashion has long driven jewelry design and styling, but technology and exploration have had an enormous impact as well. Not just for bracelets, but for any item of jewelry, the use of materials and gemstones evolved with discoveries like diamonds in Brazil and South Africa, resulting in a more generous use of the gemstone. The Comstock Lode silver strike facilitated chunky silver manchettes and chains. Technological advances in gem cutting, carving, and stone setting drove jewelry design, color choices, and gemstone arrangement. Development of new metal alloys, including the ability to work with platinum, influenced the styles, and forms jewelers employed. And let’s not forget that influencers have been around for centuries causing the masses to emulate the fashions they display.
Bracelets provide the perfect punctuation for the communication we often express with our hands. Gestures accompanying speeches, conversations, instructions, arguments, and emotional discourse are all a bit more alive with the sparkle of wristwear. With the exception of wristwatches and medical alert styles, bracelets are truly and simply a fashionable affair. The wearer’s personal preferences are the mainstay for bracelet choice, ordinary knotted string or strands of diamonds are all proud declarations of one’s individual chic.
Exploring the bracelet’s evolution in a historical context reveals societal norms, fashion trends, and the tenor of the times. From prehistory to the twenty-first century, what follows is a snapshot of the life and times of the bracelet.
Prehistory to 1000 AD
During the Predynastic and Dynastic periods in Egypt (c.3100 to 2686 BC) beads and pendants predominated in jewelry making. Preference was for the use of natural stones such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, jasper, amethyst, feldspar, turquoise, and alabaster. Harder-to-get blue stones were imitated using steatite glazed with blue or green along with glass-like beads. Gold beads began to appear c.3200 BC. Ivory bangles from c.4000 BC are believed to have been worn solely by males. Not only was gold in use but a beaded bracelet of various stones c.2000 to 1800 BC featured electrum spacer bars.
© The Trustees of the British Museum.
A type of bracelet worn by royalty in the First Dynasty (c.3100-2890 BC) was composed of rectangular beads know as serekhs. These occur in various materials; gold and turquoise serekhs were found on the arm of a queen of King Djer, and blue glazed composition serekhs have been excavated from a First Dynasty mastaba tomb at Giza. 1
Appearing c.1500 to 900 BC were bangles of beaten sheet gold. The gold was folded inward to form a three-sided hollow ring with a spacer soldered inside to preserve the shape. Carved, cut, and chased applied decorations appeared around this time along with inlays of gem materials and glass. Elaborate hinged bracelets and upper armlets often featured talismanic symbols.
© The Trustees of the British Museum
The Minoan civilization of Crete thrived c.3000 to 1000 BC. The onset of jewelry making occurred c.2400 BC. Jewelers used sheet metal and loop-in-loop chainwork to create gold jewelry, including bracelets. A bit later, c.2000 BC, filigree, dotted repoussé, and granulation appeared in their work.
In Europe and parts of Western Asia, the technical skills for drawing wire, bar-twisting, and casting appeared c.1400 to 600 BC joining the earlier methods of beating and embossing gold sheets Adding these techniques to their repertoire allowed increasing variation in designs and motifs. Twisted in gold or cast in bronze, spiral motifs were now possible.
Phonecian beaded bracelets with a central motif were created c.850 to 325 BC. Bracelets composed of gold sheet topped by applied embossed and granulated motifs are also extant from this period. Both closed by inserting a pin through a pair of hinges. Bracelets with a central rosette motif were common from the 8th century forward.
A Greek revival from c.900 to 700 BC yielded some amazing goldwork. Intricate granulation along with applied motifs dominated the style. From c.575 to 675 BC we have very few examples of Greek jewelry. From about 475 to 330 BC the workmanship is not quite as fine as previously, relying more on filigree patterns and enamel instead of granulation. Bracelets were spirals or penannular arcs with fancy finials.
Etruscan bracelets with superfine abstract granulated patterns and human and animal figures, the reverse decorated by embossed motifs, were found from this period. Later jewelry (c.400-250 BC) was plainer with basic embossed motifs.
© The Trustees of the British Museum.
Persian Lands with influences from the West created less elaborate jewelry but their extravagant use of gold made a magnificent statement. A hoard termed the Oxus Treasure features bracelets with animal-head terminals that can be seen on Assyrian sculptures of the period. The armlets from the treasure have Persian-style griffin precursors. Four bracelets from the Treasure are described as
…three are evidently Persian in inspiration, though possibly locally made; their animal-head terminals are in the forms of lions, rams, and ducks. [One] has turquoise inlay in the applied cloisons. The fourth bracelet shows the adaptation of a Persian motif to the requirements of nomadic art; the bracelet is cast and chased to represent two stylised griffins, their tails interlocked at the back of the hoop while their heads form the ends.2
A readily identifiable Celtic jewelry item is the torc. An open circlet with terminals of distinctive design, they existed both as necklaces and as bracelets or armlets. They favored red enamel and red coral for the decorative elements of their jewelry. Roman period Celtic bronze jewelry also featured champlevé enameling.
© The Trustees of the British Museum.
Basic bracelets in bronze and other metals c.600 BC to 600 AD consisted of an open-sided Torc often completed by animal or snakehead terminals. Large paired bronze armlets with enamel-enhanced terminals were produced by the cire-perdue process. Use of enamel and millefiori glass c.300 to 1000 AD to enhance their distinctive curvilinear decoration set the Celtics apart from all the others.
Fashion preferences can be used to identify locations. The French Champagne region women wore pairs of bracelets, one per arm, c.5th-4th century BC. They preferred one bracelet c.3rd – 2nd century BC. In Switzerland, they paired both anklets and bracelets.
Hellenistic jewelry c.325 BC to 600 AD included decorative elements such as the Heracles-knot (reef knot) likely an adaptation of the Egyptian amulet. Also, the crescent, imported from Western Asia, is a prevalent theme c.2nd century BC.
Roman-influenced bracelets were usually gold. Opus interrasile was employed to create designs in the gold. Colored glass and stones were the decorative elements found most often.
1000 – 1500
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Records of jewelry are scarce until c.1200 AD and few examples survive for us to study. Gem-embroidered clothing was popular among the wealthy with gold and gem-encrusted robes, shoes, and gloves being worn at this time. Inventories of the noble and royal ranks do list jewelry items but much more scarcely than in later eras. As prosperity spread during the 13th and 14th centuries, ownership of jewelry followed.
© The Trustees of the British Museum
Bracelets and arm rings were a rare occurrence early in this period due to restrictive fashion not allowing for the wrist or arm to be displayed. Bracelets began to appear in literature and royal inventories c.14th century. Wealth and prosperity along with a change in the fashion for wide loose sleeves enabled bracelets to be worn and displayed.
Sported by both men and women, bracelets c.1500 took many forms. Beads of amber, coral, agate, and pearls were strung as bracelets. There were delicate chains with gems, fancy ornamental links, bangles, and straps. Enamel played a major role in their decorative motifs. Messages, names, and initials, both secret and overt, were rendered in enamel or engraved into the metalwork. Diamonds, pearls, and rubies along with clever imitations and foil-backed crystals were prevalent.
Jewelry and luxurious clothing were status symbols at the time and sumptuary laws were enacted in an attempt at regulation. The legislation of personal finery limited the wearing of gold jewelry to nobility. The laws spelled out the quantity and quality that could be worn in an attempt to maintain the prevailing class system. Newly rich merchants, burghers, and others emulated the nobles in dress and adornment and these laws were enacted to keep them in their place. Evidence is weak as to the success of such legislation.3
1500 – 1800
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Renaissance bracelets ran the gamut from simple chains to ornamental links, with or without gemstone enhancement, and were required turn out for “gentlewomen” of the era. Names, initials, and messages were popular decorations and sometimes even provided the form of the bracelet. Tokens of love and remembrance, “Cupid’s manacles,” were 16th-century favorites. Chain patterns worn in pairs by both men and women, and flagon patterns with gem-set clasps, mottos, ciphers, and coats of arms were the decorative choices of the era. Scallop shells, knots, snakes, and fish made from gold with enamel and pearls were also among jewelers’ favorite motifs. Later pearl strands with a gold clasp claimed the top spot.
There was no gender bias in bracelet-wearing in the years between 1625 and 1714. Once again, stranded beads of coral, amber, agates, and pearls were bracelets of choice. Also popular were bracelets made of gold chains or formed and shaped sheet gold. Jeweled chains, tied together with ribbon fasteners were ladies’ favorites. Slides mounted on ribbon featured love tokens, miniatures, and other plaques.
The bracelet clasp was the main feature of bracelet design c.1714 to 1790 designed to feature miniatures, ciphers, and mottos in pearls or diamonds on enamel. The more budget-friendly versions featured marcasite on blue or red glass. A pair of French bracelet clasps attributed to Marie Antoinette featured blue paste framed in diamonds, one with her initials and the other a trophy of love motif with doves and torches.
The inventory books and portraiture during this period record the popularity of pearl bracelets with multiple rows c.1770. In this fashion, King George III presented Queen Charlotte with a pair of bracelets composed of six strings of large pearls with diamond set clasps, one of which featured his miniature and the other his hair and cipher.
Jewelry motifs of the era often featured images of things that sparked joy such as fortune and her wheel for a gambler, muses in a laurel grove, floral motifs, and other pastoral scenes. Mythological motifs were also in vogue carved on hardstone cameos, or more frugally featured on tassies. Braided hair bracelets to commemorate a loved one present or past were part of the repertoire of hairwork creators of the era.
1800-1820
At the tail end of what we in the jewelry world often refer to as the Georgian Era, bracelets were often gold mesh construction with a clasp decorated by filigree. Glittering jewels marching around the wrist in a line featured cameos, intaglios, mosaics, and just plain gemstones. During this era, secret messages and acrostics were popular and bracelets were the perfect way to exhibit these tidings. Wearing bracelets in pairs, the stylistic choice was whether to wear one on each wrist or to pair them together on one arm. Geometry figured into the shaping of bracelets popular during this era continuing long into the next. By 1820 it was acceptable to mix and match more than one bracelet style with another in multiples.4
Cannetille, Berlin ironwork, fine link woven mesh, gem-set plaques linked together, paved turquoise, cameos, and multi-strand pearl arrangements were all fair game for bracelets in the Georgian era. Coral, turquoise, amber, agate, amethyst, garnet, pearls, and diamonds were the popular gems of the period. 5
1820-1840
Blending and transitioning from the Georgian Era to one ruled by Queen Victoria, many jewelry motifs continued in popularity. Queen Victoria, a royal, viral media influencer, had a major impact on fashion till the end of the millennium. The advent of photography enabled her image and therefore her fashion choices to be displayed in the publications of the day, worldwide.
Bracelets were still on display on both arms and in multiples. Geneva enamel plaques and other enamel embellishments appeared c.1830s atop scroll, floral, or foliate link bracelets. Blue guilloché enamel was particularly popular usually on wide flat ribbon-like bracelets with pearl or garnet-enhanced clasps. Detachable floral and foliate motif gem-set plaques centered on heart and S-shaped links. Die Striking or stamping, patented in 1769, joined the line-up of techniques used in the creation of three-dimensional links mimicking repoussé and cuir roulé. 6
Puffed sleeves allowed for large bracelets Townsend’s Monthly Selection of Parisian Costumes note in Feb 1826:
…the rage for bracelets still continues. To multiply the number, a lady of fashion does not object to sacrificing the beauty of her arms, by covering them with cameos and stones from the wrists to the elbows.7
1840-1860
Bracelets became essential and were displayed on the wrist by day and on the glove or between the glove and elbow in the evening. Royal blue enamel and paved turquoise serpents coiled on arms in hinged bangle and articulated link forms. Embroidered ribbons of silk or velvet accented by beads, woven wire, or hairwork were completed by a fancy clasp. These clasps could sport a miniature, cameo, large gemstone, or simply exquisite goldwork. Circa the 1840s expanding link bracelets and chains with hinged and sprung links were acceptable both day and night. The jarretière bracelet with a large buckle or slide in a garter style could feature fringe, enamel, or other decoration on the buckle or slide. The manchette, a wide gold gem set or enameled cuff, was popular c.1850s along with bracelets composed of flexible links sporting detachable elements, scrollwork, and Algerian knot motifs.
Bangles featured clusters of garnets, pearls, and turquoise, sometimes sporting an Algerian knot. Figural knights and angels famously danced on Gothic-inspired bracelets with ogive-shaped links and heraldic motifs. Carved garnets and carbuncles were perched on bangles, cuffs, and link bracelets. Simple scroll-shaped and “S”-shaped links were popular and often centered an intricate motif. Rows of flowers, berries, and vines encircled wrists c.1850s. enhanced by enamel, pearls, and other gemstones. 8
1860-1880
Multiple bracelets per arm continued its popularity. Deceptively light curb or ship’s cable linking and flexible gold bands were topped with bejeweled central motifs or clasps. Renaissance revival was in full swing with enamel openwork rectangular links and chunky enameled bangles. Holbeinesque designs with colorful enamel and gemstones revived some of the most elegant elements of the Middle Ages. Archeological revival brought granulation, wirework, enamel, ancient coins, and cameos back into vogue.
By the 1870s, bangles were the see-and-be-seen jewelry item. Central motifs of gems or enamel were often detachable. In keeping with the fashion for all things ancient, Assyrian and Greek motifs were engraved on wide gold bangles and mosaics played a central role as decorative enhancements. Ram’s head terminals were added to twisted gold half-hoop open bangles.
Medallions of micromosaics, ancient intaglios, and cameos, disks of archeological revival inspiration, and ancient coins linked up to form popular bracelets c.1860s. Japanese inspiration hit the jewelry world and c.1870s shakudo plaques were also mounted and linked as bracelets.
1880-1900
Bangles and more bangles! Worn in multiples these bracelets were topped with gemstones set in checked patterns, naturalistic floral motifs, and lines of graduated gemstones. Both wide and narrow bangles were popular along with crossovers that appeared c.1890s. Open bangles with a sprung segment allowed for a close-fitting wide bangle with textured and fluted motifs. By the fin-de-siècle curb links in both hollow and solid styles sported padlock clasps, charms, gemstones, and medallions. Other chain-style bracelets also made the cut with ropes of chain and central gem set motifs. Lacy gem set slides with ribbons coordinated with the same style chokers of the period. The variety of enhancement ran the gamut from archeological revival to Art Nouveau and Arts & Crafts in this time of extreme design evolution. 9
1900-1920
Newly minted millionaires in America wishing to mimic the aristocracy in every way were buying up everything they needed to compete. Jewelry was no exception and the market for fine jewelry blew wide open. The abundance of diamonds available from the new mines in South Africa provided jewelers with what they needed to meet this new demand. 10
Edwardian garland style in finely rendered linked motifs was made possible by the use of platinum and the mountain of diamonds flowing into the market. This all-white combination of diamonds and platinum was a signature of the era. Bracelets were no exception as lacy garlands and openwork plaques were styled as wristwear. Some bandeaus, a period replacement for the tiara, doubled as bracelets with convertible elements.
Chunky bracelets fell from grace and delicate lacier styles prevailed. Multiples were out but one per wrist was still fashionable. In order to accommodate various wrist sizes (and the gloves no gloves dilemma), a segment of motifs or line of gems finished with unadorned expanding links made sizing easier and costs a bit lower. Late in the era narrow lines of gemstones became the bracelet of choice.10
A stylistic change in clothing brought about a fancy for new design influences such as tassels, architectural elements from the East and a liberal use of colored gems. This evolution retired the garland style and presaged the post-war Roaring Twenties.11
1920-1940
The conclusion of World War I and women’s expanded roles from homemaker to working in all facets of industry and endeavor created an atmosphere of devil-may-care. Not wanting to return to pre-war fashion or vocation, women’s attitude was forever changed.
Paradoxically, the scantily clad women of the 1920s loved to cover themselves with jewelry; arms left bare by evening gowns rattled with bangles instead.12
In a “more-the-merrier” outlook, jewelry was worn in abundance. Bracelets lined the wrist and worked their way up the arm. Wider strappier bracelets took advantage of the geometric designs preferred during the Roaring Twenties. Huge bracelets, strap, and bangle styles, composed of numerous bold colorful gemstones and diamonds dominated the 1930s.
Egyptomania was on display with diorama-style straps depicting ankhs, lotus flowers, birds, winged gods, and architectural motifs. Carved gemstones inspired by jewels from India were lined up on flexible straps. Floral motifs and geometric designs composed of calibré cut gemstones flashed from fashionable wrists.
Charm bracelets of delicate links dangled tiny exquisitely rendered whimsical creations. Carved gemstone plaques were joined by gem-set links. Pavé gem-set hinged bangles terminated in mythical creatures, wild animals, and ethnic designs. Manchettes were back, this time with enamel or applied gem motifs.
Carved African-style ivory bangles, inspired by Josephine Baker’s La Revue Nègre’s popularity, were often worn in multiples.
On a darker note, ‘slave’ bangles also grew in popularity. As the name suggests, these ivory, wood or metal bangles, several of which could be worn at a time, were inspired by the bangles exchanged as a form of currency when Europeans bought slaves from West Africa. 13
Gem cutters rose to the occasion by providing new gem shapes to meet the stylistic demands of Persian, Egyptian, and Far East influences in jewelry. The flood of rubies out of Mogok provided them with ample material to produce the thousands of specially cut stones used for the serti mystérieux (invisible setting) patented by Van Cleef and Arpels and featured on jarretière bracelet designs.
With a Mayan step influence, the escalier bracelet was composed of prismatic-shaped links arranged like a staircase or escalator. The illusion is achieved through alternating hues of gold or contrasting gemstones enhancing the three-dimensionality of the links.
The 1930s saw the double clip brooch attached to bangle bracelets in a modular arrangement to make the most out of convertible jewelry items. Purchasing a double-clip brooch sometimes came with the option of a bangle for diversification. Additionally, some bandeaux and chokers could be separated and worn as bracelets.
Thin lines of gemstones that we refer to as line bracelets were very trendy and remain so today. Van Cleef & Arpels’ famous honeycombed “Ludo” bracelet created in 1934 was a swath of articulated polished gold dotted with star-set gemstones and completed by a large buckle or clasp and presaged the Retro Era fashion for wide gold bracelets. Cartier’s Tutti Frutti arrangements of carved colorful gemstones were a flowing bit of naturalism within a geometric Art Deco framework. You can clearly see the influence these innovative jewelers had on each other in the works created during this fruitful jewelry era.14
Alongside traditional fine jewelry, an Art Moderne movement was coalescing, bringing artisans (bijoutiers – artistes) and fine jewelers (bijoutiers – joailliers) together in interesting ways. Bangles and manchettes, intended to be discernable from afar, were rendered with great artistic aplomb. This new breed of jewelers created more stylized and streamlined designs substituting lacquer for enamel and prioritizing carved gem material over fine gemstones. These works of are were not always rendered in gold or platinum, substituting silver and other alloys in imitation was part of their “platform”. Stylistically, this would influence jewelry design for years to come.
1940-1960
War limitations and shipping restrictions once again slowed the jewelry industry. Stretching their limited supplies and boldly shaping them in three dimensions, big, bold, and gold was the mantra of the 1940s. The 1930s extreme pavé application of diamond and other fine gemstones morphed into a field of polished gold surrounding large, colorful semi-precious gems. Aquamarines, amethysts, and citrines were signature gems of the period. In an attempt to stay au courant, jewelry mavens would sometimes have their earlier platinum jewelry plated gold.
Using gold in a hollowed-out thinner and somewhat diminished alloy, with the addition of more copper, this reddish-toned gold is emblematic of the 1940s. Inspired by tank treads, machinery, and industrial chains, these oversized geometric-shaped links often alternated varying shades of gold. Tubogas, snake-link flexible bracelets, were sometimes convertible for wear as a necklace. Manchettes decorated with texture, gemstones, or charms were de rigueur.15
Multi-row pearl bracelets with large clasps and twisted torsades of pearls or beads were fun and functional. Charm bracelets remained in vogue, switching from platinum to gold with the charms growing exponentially.
In the late 1940s, the design influences moved from industrial and mechanical to classical motifs of a more sinuous and flowing aesthetic. Changing fashion dictated a change in jewelry styling. While gold was still a daytime classic, it moved from bold and geometric to lighter naturalistic motifs. Ribbons and bows were lighter and airier and abstract and asymmetrical designs joined the line-up. Textile motifs with spiky edges and textured surfaces undulated in bracelet form. In that spirit, Van Cleef & Arpels created a convertible “Zip” necklace that when zipped became a bracelet.
A veritable jungle filled with panthers and other wild cats wound around wrists. These gem-set felines were so popular with the prosperous set, they secured their place in jewelry collections onward into the 21st Century.
Nostalgic for pre-war elegance, diamonds were not forgotten. Moving into the 1950s the all-white look with bold diamond arrangements glittered on evening wrists. Central floral motifs and garland designs were once again the aesthetic to inspire fine jewels.16
1960-1980
Jagged-edged arrangements of a variety of gemstone cuts zigged and zagged across wrists c.1960s. These spiky arrangments of gemstones contrast dramatically from their earlier smooth rectangular strap styles. The artistic influence of the space age Sputnik style jewels and an ascending Brutalist aesthetic blended with the op-art movement to make bracelets an anything-goes arrangement of brightly colored gemstones, enamel, metal, shells, and other decorative embellishments. Elements from the natural world were distorted and deformed so as to render them unrecognizable, yet natural. Turquoise and coral were once again featured gems.
Bangles ran the gamut of bombé arrangements of gems arranged to evoke the spiky look sported by strappy styles. Hinged bangles with gem-set and enameled animal and mythological creature terminals faced off across a gap or a clasp. Springy cuffs curled around wrists with stylized serpent motifs. Carved from stone or enameled on gold, a veritable zoo was produced to romp around wrists.
The 1970s moved the aesthetic to an oversized link motif splashed with gemstones. Heavy link chains with applied elements such as the ancient coins employed by Bulgari were daywear de rigueur. Inspiration derived from traditional Indian and Islamic decorative motifs led Van Cleef & Arpels to render them in gems and gold for an exotic wrist garnish.17
Women began choosing and purchasing their own jewelry and custom, diamond-laden creations were not budget-friendly. The major jewelry houses began to cater to their new patrons and the pendulum swung from bespoke designs to easily discernable signature pieces. The cachet of the Maison nearly outstripped the intrinsic value of the jewelry. This remains the situation today.18
1980-2000
Throughout jewelry history, bracelets have been a stand-out wearable. What is captivating about them is that they transcend their birth eras becoming a wearable staple from any era into any other, timeless! It is also fascinating to note how bracelet styles flowed in and out of fashion time after time. Curb links styles from the Victorian Era resurface repeatedly throughout the 20th Century and beyond. Charm bracelets are a classic with the charms expressing their fashion nuance through size and motif election. Bangles, cuffs, and manchettes have made an appearance in nearly every period from prehistory to today.
Mixing precious materials with non-precious wearables like leather, plastic, beads, or string with gold, diamonds, and gemstones is really okay. Wristwatch alone or with a bracelet or two to compliment or contrast? Go for it. Telegraph your special style with the clever bracelet choices you pair with your ensemble du jour.
Next time the conversation gets animated, notice the wristwear, it makes a statement all its own.
Related Reading
Sources
- Bennett, David & Mascetti, Daniela. Understanding Jewellery. Woodbridge, Suffolk, England: Antique Collectors’ Club, 2008.
- Bennett, David & Mascetti, Daniela. Understanding Jewellery: The 20th Century, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England: ACC Art Books Ltd., 2021.
- Bennett, David & Mascetti, Daniela. Celebrating Jewellery: Exceptional Jewels of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Antique Collectors’ Club Ltd., 2012.
- Anderson, J.B. A History of Jewelry: Five Thousand Years. New York: Park Lane, 1974.
- Campbell, Marian. Medieval Jewellery in Europe 1100-1500. London: V & A Publishing, 2009.
- Dawes, Ginny Redington Dawes with Collings, Olivia. Georgian Jewellery: 1714-1830. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Antique Collectors’ Club, 2007.
- Flower Margaret. Victorian Jewellery. South Brunswick, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes and Co., Inc., 1967.
- Phillips, Clare. Jewels and Jewelry. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000.
- Scarisbrick, Diana. Jewellery in Britain: 1066-1837. Whitby Hall, Whitby, Norwich: Michael Russell Publishing Ltd., 1994.
- Scarisbrick, Diana. Tudor and Jacobean Jewellery. London: Tate Publishing, 1993.
- Tait, Hugh. Seven Thousand Years of Jewellery. London: British Museum Press. 1986.
Notes
- Tait, p. 27↵
- Tait, p. 69↵
- Campbell, p. 40↵
- Bennett et al, p. 71↵
- Bennett et al, p. 184↵
- Bennett et al, Pp. 92-94↵
- Phillips, p. 76↵
- Bennett et al, Pp. 125-128↵
- Bennett et al, p. 251↵
- Bennett et al (Celebrating), p. 104↵↵
- Bennett et al, p. 497↵
- Bennett et al. (20th Century) p. 50↵
- Bennett et al. (20th Century) p. 51↵
- Bennett et al, Pp. 329-345↵
- Bennett et al. (20th Century) Pp. 125-126↵
- Bennett et al, Pp. 393-396↵
- Bennett et al, Pp. 434-440↵
- Bennett et al (Celebrating), p. 251↵
- Bennett et al. (20th Century) Pp. 247-248↵